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  Earth’s Atmosphere

  Earth’s atmosphere has changed through time. Compared to the Sun, whose composition is representative of the raw materials from which Earth and other planets in our solar system formed, Earth contains less of some volatile elements, such as nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, and helium. These elements were lost when the envelope of gases, or primary atmosphere, that surrounded early Earth was stripped away by the solar wind or by meteorite impacts, or both. Little by little, the planet generated a new, secondary atmosphere by volcanic outgassing of volatile materials from its interior.

  Volcanic outgassing continues to be the main process by which volatile materials are released from Earth. Although it is now going on at a much slower rate. The main chemical constituent of volcanic gases (as much as 97 percent of volume) is water vapor, with varying amounts of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other gases. In fact, the total volume of volcanic gases released over the past 4 billion years or so is believed to account for the present composition of the atmosphere with one important exception: oxygen. Earth had virtually no oxygen in its atmosphere more than 4 billion years ago, but the atmosphere is now approximately 21 percent oxygen.

  Traces of oxygen were probably generated in the early atmosphere by the breakdown of water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen by ultraviolet light (a process called photodissociation). Although this is an important process, it cannot begin to account for the present high levels of oxygen in the atmosphere. Almost all of the free oxygen now in the atmosphere originated through photosynthesis, the process whereby plants use light energy to induce carbon dioxide to react with water, producing carbohydrates and oxygen.

  Oxygen is a very reactive chemical, so at first most of the free oxygen produced by photosynthesis was combined with iron in ocean water to form iron oxide-bearing minerals. The evidence of the gradual transition from oxygen-poor to oxygen-rich water is preserved in seafloor sediments. The minerals in seafloor sedimentary rocks that are more than about 2.5 billion years old contain reduced (oxygen-poor) iron compounds. In rocks that are less than 1.8 billion years old, oxidized (oxygen-rich) compounds predominate. The sediments that were precipitated during the transition contain alternating bands of red (oxidized iron) and black (reduced iron) minerals. These rocks are called banded-iron formations. Because ocean water is in constant contact with the atmosphere, and the two systems function together in a state of dynamic equilibrium, the transition from an oxygen-poor to an oxygen-rich atmosphere also must have occurred during this period.

  Along with the buildup of molecular oxygen (O2) came an eventual increase in ozone (O3) levels in the atmosphere. (A) Because ozone filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, this made it possible for life to flourish in shallow water and finally on land. (B) This critical state in the evolution of the atmosphere was reached between 1,100 and 542 million years ago. (C) Interestingly, the fossil record shows an explosion of life forms 542 million years ago. (D)

  Oxygen has continued to play a key role in the evolution and form of life. Over the last 200 million years, the concentration of oxygen has risen from 10 percent to as much as 25 percent of the atmosphere, before settling (probably not permanently) at its current value of 21 percent. This increase has benefited mammals, which are voracious oxygen consumers. Not only do we require oxygen to fuel our high-energy, warm-blooded metabolism, our unique reproductive system demands even more. An expectant mother’s used (venous) blood must still have enough oxygen in it to diffuse through the placenta into her unborn child’s bloodstream. It would be very difficult for any mammal species to survive in an atmosphere of only 10 percent oxygen.

  Geologists cannot yet be certain why the atmospheric oxygen levels increased, but they have a hypothesis. First, photosynthesis is only one part of the oxygen cycle. The cycle is completed by decomposition, in which organic carbon combines with oxygen and forms carbon dioxide. But if organic matter is buried as sediment before it fully decomposes, its carbon is no longer available to react with the free oxygen. Thus there will be a net accumulation of carbon in sediments and of oxygen in the atmosphere.

  1.In paragraph 1, why does the author state that Earth has less nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, and helium than the Sun

  A)To argue that these elements were once part of an early atmosphere, which disappeared.

  B)To suggest that these elements were drawn into the Sun’s atmosphere.

  C)To provide evidence that Earth’s original atmosphere came primarily from meteorites.

  D)To support the claim that Earth’s atmosphere would have changed even more if it had contained more volatile elements.

  2.The word “constituent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)source

  B)equivalent

  C)component

  D)product

  3.According to paragraph 2, the history of volcanic outgassing cannot explain which of the following

  A)The lack of oxygen in the atmosphere 4 billion years ago.

  B)The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere today.

  C)The proportions of nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today.

  D)The present abundance of oxygen in the atmosphere.

  4.Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about the process of photodissociation

  A)It is more common today than it was in the early history of the atmosphere.

  B)It is responsible for only a small amount of the oxygen in the atmosphere today.

  C)It removes trace amounts of oxygen from the atmosphere.

  D)It produces more free oxygen than photosynthesis does.

  5.According to paragraph 4, what can be learned from the type of iron compounds in seafloor rocks

  A)How the process of photosynthesis has changed over time

  B)The level of oxygen in the water at a certain time in history

  C)How levels of iron in ocean water decreased over time

  D)The overall mineral content of the ocean water

  6.The word “predominate” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)are in the majority

  B)are present

  C)are increasing

  D)first appear

  7.According to paragraph 4, banded-iron formations are found in what kind of rocks

  A)Those that are more than 2.5 billion years old.

  B)Those that do not contain oxidized compounds.

  C)Those that are from a transitional period in terms of oxygen richness.

  D)Those that are less than 1.8 billion years old.

  8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A)Since the oceans and the atmosphere function together, the atmosphere must have become oxygen rich during this period.

  B)Because ocean water is in constant contact with the atmosphere, the two systems maintain a dynamic equilibrium.

  C)The transition to an oxygen-rich atmosphere could not have happened without constant contact with the oceans.

  D)Much of the oxygen in the oceans must have been pulled out of the atmosphere during this period.

  9.According to paragraph 5, which of the following happened sometime between 1,100 and 542 million years ago

  A)A sudden explosion of life forms on land occurred together with a sharp decline of life in the water.

  B)Ultraviolet radiation became more harmful to living organisms.

  C)Molecular oxygen levels in the atmosphere stabilized, and ozone levels began to rise.

  D)Ozone reduced ultraviolet radiation to a level acceptable for life on land.

  10.According to paragraph 6, which of the following is NOT true of the connection between mammals and oxygen

  A)Mammals are able to survive only because oxygen levels are relatively high.

  B)Mammals first emerged when atmospheric oxygen levels reached 10 percent.

  C)A mammal’s unborn child receives oxygen through the mother’s placenta.

  D)Mammals use a lot of oxygen partly because they are warm-blooded.

  11.The word “gradual” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)crucial

  B)original

  C)beneficial

  D)slow

  12.The word “diffuse” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)spread

  B)break

  C)squeeze

  D)speed

  13.Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  The timing strongly suggests that atmospheric changes were responsible for this sudden increase in new life.

  Where would the sentence best fit

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

  A)Over the last 4 billion years, outgassing destroyed Earth’s primary atmosphere of volatile elements and replaced it with nonvolatile materials including carbon dioxide.

  B)The small amount of oxygen in Earth’s early atmosphere was due to photodissociation and, later, photosynthesis created free oxygen.

  C)Mammals could not have survived without an oxygen-rich atmosphere, and land-based life would not be possible without the ozone layer to filter solar radiation.

  D)When oxygen levels in the ocean water reached a critical level about 542 million years ago, life emerged in the oceans, as shown by sedimentary rocks.

  E)Although they are currently at about 21 percent, oxygen levels will probably not always remain this high.

  F)The breakdown of organic matter removes free oxygen, but if this process is interrupted, extra oxygen may accumulate in the atmosphere.

  The Plow and the Horse in Medieval Europe

  One of the most important factors driving Europe slow emergence from the economic stagnation of the Early Middle Ages (circa 500000 BC) was the improvement of agricultural technology. One innovation was a new plow, with a curved attachment (moldboard) to turn over wet, heavy soils, and a knife (or coulter) in front of the blade to allow a deeper and easier cut. (A) This more complex plow replaced the simpler cratch plow that merely made a shallow, straight furrow in the ground. (B) In the lands around the Mediterranean, with light rains and mild winters, this had been fine, but in the wetter terrain north and west of the Danube and the Alps, such a plow left much to be desired, and it is to be wondered if it was used at all. Cleared lands would more likely have been worked by hand tilling, with little direct help from animals, and the vast forests natural to Northern Europe remained either untouched, or perhaps cleared in small sections by fire, and the land probably used only so long as the ash-enriched soil yielded good crops and then abandoned for some other similarly cleared field. (C) Such a pattern of agriculture and settlement was no basis for sustained cultural or economic life. (D)

  With the new heavy plow, however, fields could be cleared, sowed, and maintained with little more difficulty than in the long-settled lands of Southern Europe, while the richness of the new soils, the reliability of the rains, and the variety of crops now possibly made for an extremely productive agriculture. The new tool, however, imposed new demands, technical, economic, and social. The heavy plow was a substantial piece of capital, unlike a simple hand hoe, and this had the same sorts of implications that capitalization always hasn’t favored the concentration of wealth and control. Moreover, making full use of it required more animal power, and this had a host of implications of its own. The full importance of this was even more apparent in the centuries after 1000, when oxen began to give way in certain parts of Western Europe to horses.

  The powerful, rugged farm horse was itself a product of improvement during the Middle Ages, and it was part of a complex set of technical changes and capabilities. The introduction of new forms of equipment for horses transformed this animal into the single most important assist to human labor and travel. Instead of the old harness used by the ancient Greeks and Romans, there appeared from Central Asia the rigid, padded horse collar. Now, when the horse pulled against a load, no longer did the load pull back against its neck and windpipe but rather rode on the sturdy shoulders. When this innovation was combined with the iron horseshoe, the greater speed and stamina of the horse displaced oxen wherever it could be afforded. The larger importance of this lay not only in more efficient farmwork, but in swifter and surer transportation between town and countryside. The farmer with horses could move products to market more frequently and at greater distances than with only oxen, and the urban development that was to transform the European economic and social landscape after the eleventh century was propelled in large part by these new horse-centered transport capabilities.

  Another indicator of how compelling and important was the new horse agriculture was its sheer cost. Unlike oxen and other cattle, horses cannot be supported exclusively on hay and pasturage; they require, particularly in northern climates where pasturing seasons are short, cropped food, such as oats and alfalfa. Unlike grass and hay, these are grown with much of the same effort and resources applied to human nourishment, and thus their acquisition represents a sacrifice, in a real sense, of human food. The importance of this in a world that usually lived at the margins of sufficient diet is hard to overstate. The increased resources that went into making the horse central to both the medieval economy and, in a separate but related development, medieval warfare, are the surest signs of the great utility the animal now assumed.

  1.The word “stagnation” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)instability

  B)lack of growth

  C)dependence on others

  D)decline

  2.According to paragraph 1, what was the main advantage of the new plow over the scratch plow

  A)The new plow created straighter rows.

  B)The new plow was easier for animals to pull.

  C)The new plow could dig deeper into the soil.

  D)The new plow was easier to make.

  3.According to paragraph 1, the scratch plow was particularly unsuited to

  A)the lands around the Mediterranean

  B)places where the soil was often dry

  C)places where land was cleared and worked by hand

  D)places where the soil was particularly wet and heavy

  4.Paragraph 1 implies which of the following about agriculture before the introduction of the new plow

  A)Limited rainfall had prevented large-scale agricultural development.

  B)Most of Europe’s developed agricultural communities were located in the south.

  C)Several other important innovations immediately preceded the development of the new plow.

  D)Much of Europe’s forestland had been converted to agricultural use.

  5.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A)Tilling by hand was so difficult that cleared land in Northern Europe was often abandoned and allowed to return to its natural forested state.

  B)Cleared land was probably tilled by hand, while the forests of Northern Europe were cleared only in small sections and used for short periods.

  C)In the vast natural forests of Northern Europe, farmers had to work the land by hand, with little direct help from animals.

  D)Fire enabled northern European farmers to enrich cleared land enough to cultivate their crops for short periods of time.

  6.The word “implications” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)requirements

  B)inequalities

  C)consequences

  D)disadvantages

  7.What can be inferred from the information that the new plow favored the concentration of wealth and control

  A)Wealthy farmers in the south had a significant economic advantage over farmers in the north.

  B)The production and sale of the new plow became an important source of capital.

  C)The new plow was more popular in parts of Europe where oxen were used for farming than in parts where horses were used.

  D)Greater economic equality existed in northern Europe before the introduction of the new plow.

  8.According to paragraph 3, which of the following contributed to the dramatic rise in the agricultural use of horses in Europe

  A)A powerful new breed of farm horse was brought to Europe from Central Asia.

  B)Farmers began using rigid, padded collars that allowed horses to pull heavy loads more easily.

  C)For the first time, horses became cheaper than oxen.

  D)Farmers began studying the farming techniques used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.

  9.According to paragraph 3, what role did horses play in the larger social changes of the eleventh century

  A)The raising and selling of horses became important economic and cultural activities in Europe.

  B)Horses stimulated the growth of urban areas by providing quick, reliable transportation.

  C)Owners of successful horse-based farms became influential members of society.

  D)Horse transportation enabled Europeans to interact with other cultures like those of Central Asia.

  10.The word “exclusively” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)cheaply

  B)easily

  C)reliably

  D)solely

  11.In paragraph 4, why does the author emphasize the amount of effort and resources needed to grow alfalfa and oats

  A)To illustrate how valuable horses were by showing how much farmers were willing to sacrifice to keep them

  B)To provide evidence that, in medieval Europe, both horses and humans lived at the margins of a sufficient diet

  C)To argue that it made more sense to devote land to growing food for humans than to growing food for horses

  D)To explain why oxen and other cattle that ate grass and hay continued to be more common than horses

  12.The word “sustained” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)continued

  B)established

  C)ordinary

  D)active

  13.Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  In fact, it sliced the ground so thoroughly that fields could be planted after only one plowing rather than the two needed before.

  Where would the sentence best fit

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

  A)Light rains and unpredictable winters had made most of the soil in Europe unsuitable for enough agriculture to sustain economic development.

  B)Improvements in the design of plows opened up vast areas of land in Northern Europe that had previously been unusable for sustained agriculture.

  C)Farmers switched from oxen to horses to pull their plows because inexpensive pasturage for oxen decreased significantly in the centuries after 1000 B.C.

  D)With help from a new kind of harness from Asia, horses were able to pull the new heavy plow and to transport goods to market more quickly and frequently.

  E)The introduction of iron horseshoes enabled farmers to transport goods farther than they could with the more expensive oxen.

  F)The horse came to be valued so greatly that farmers devoted some of their land to growing crops for their horses rather than using this land to grow food for their families.

  The Geographical Distribution of Gliding Animals

  Southeast Asia has a unique abundance and diversity of gliding animals, flying squirrels, flying frogs, and flying lizards with wings of skin that enable them to glide through the tropical forest. What could be the explanation for the great diversity in this region and the scarcity of such animals in other tropical forests Gliding has generally been viewed as either a means of escaping predators, by allowing animals to move between trees without descending to the ground, or as an energetically efficient way of traveling long distances between scattered resources. But what is special about Southeast Asian rain forests

  Scientists have proposed various theories to explain the diversity of gliding animals in Southeast Asia. The first theory might be called the tall-trees hypothesis. The forests of Southeast Asia are taller than forests elsewhere due to the domination of the dipterocarp family: a family of tall, tropical hardwood trees. Taller trees could allow for longer glides and the opportunity to build up speed in a dive before gliding. The lower wind speeds in tall-tree forests might also contribute by providing a more advantageous situation for gliding between trees. This argument has several flaws, however. First, gliding animals are found throughout the Southeast Asian region, even in relatively short-stature forests found in the northern range of the rain forest in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Some gliders also thrive in low secondary forests, plantations, and even city parks. Clearly, gliding animals do not require tall trees for their activities. In addition, many gliding animals begin their glides from the middle of tree trunks, not even ascending to the tops of trees to take off.

  A second theory, which we might call the broken-forest hypothesis, speculates that the top layer of the forest—the tree canopy has fewer woody vines connecting tree crowns in Southeast Asian forests than in New World and African forests. As a result, animals must risk descending to the ground or glide to move between trees. In addition, the tree canopy is presumed to be more uneven in height in Asian forests, due to the presence of the tall dipterocarp trees with lower trees between them, again favoring gliding animals. Yet ecologists who work in different regions of the world observe tremendous local variation in tree height, canopy structure, and abundance of vines, depending on the site conditions of soil, climate, slope elevation, and local disturbance. One can find many locations in Southeast Asia where there are abundant woody vines and numerous connections between trees and similarly many Amazonian forests with few woody vines.

  A final theory differs from the others in suggesting that it is the presence of dipterocarp trees themselves that is driving the evolution of gliding species. (A) According to this view, dipterocarp forests can be food-deserts for the animals that live in them. (B) The animals living in dipterocarp forests that have evolved gliding consist of two main feeding groups: leaf eaters and carnivores that eat small prey such as insects and small vertebrates. (C) For leaf-eating gliders the problem is not the absence of any leaves but the desert-like absence of edible leaves. Dipterocarp trees often account for 50 percent or more of the total number of canopy trees in a forest and over 95 percent of the large trees, yet dipterocarp leaves are unavailable to most vertebrate plant eaters because of the high concentration of toxic chemicals in their leaves. (D) Many species of gliding animals avoid eating dipterocarp leaves and so must travel widely through the forest, bypassing the dipterocarp trees, to find the leaves they need to eat. And gliding is a more efficient manner of traveling between trees than descending to the ground and walking or else jumping between trees.

  Many carnivorous animals also may need to search more widely for food due to the lower abundance of insects and other prey. This is caused by dipterocarps’ irregular flowering and fruiting cycles of two- to seven-year intervals, causing a scarcity of the flowers, fruits, seeds, and seedlings that are the starting point of so many food chains. The lower abundance of prey in dipterocarp forests forces animals such as lizards and geckos to move between tree crowns in search of food, with gliding being the most efficient means.

  1.According to paragraph 1, what question about gliding species are researchers trying to answer

  A)Why it took millions of years for gliding animals to evolve in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia

  B)Why gliding animals, though rare in most tropical forests, have evolved in so many different families in Southeast Asia

  C)Why gliding animals evolved in many tropical forests in Southeast Asia before they evolved in any of the tropical forests elsewhere in the world

  D)Why gliding animals evolved only in tropical rain forests

  2.According to paragraph 1, it is generally thought that the ability to glide is useful to forest-dwelling species because gliding

  A)allows them to adapt to a wide variety of forest conditions

  B)eliminates the need to travel long distances in search of food

  C)provides a rapid, energy-efficient way of descending from the top of a tree to the ground

  D)enables them to move through the forest without being exposed to predators on the ground

  3.The word “scattered” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)hard to find

  B)seasonally available

  C)widely separated

  D)highly varied

  4.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 in support of the tall-trees hypothesis EXCEPT:

  A)Tall trees make longer glides possible.

  B)Tall trees make building up speed in a dive possible.

  C)Tall trees make gliding from the middle of tree trunks possible.

  D)Tall-tree forests have lower wind speeds.

  5.Select the TWO answer choices that point to flaws in the tall-trees hypothesis, according to paragraph 2. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.

  A)Many gliding animals are unable to ascend to the tops of tall trees.

  B)Gliding animals are not evenly distributed throughout the forests of the Southeast Asian region.

  C)In Southeast Asia, many gliding animals are found in places where trees tend to be relatively short.

  D)Many gliding animals begin their glides from positions midway up the trunks of trees.

  6. The word “speculates” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)concludes from evidence

  B)recognizes

  C)puts forward as a possibility

  D)claims

  7.Paragraph 3 implies which of the following ideas about forests in which there are abundant woody vines connecting tree crowns

  A)The tree canopy is more even than it is in other forests.

  B)In such forests, animals can move between trees by traveling on vines.

  C)Such forests generally contain a wider diversity of animals than other forests do.

  D)There are likely to be fewer predators on the ground in such forests than in other forests.

  8.The word “tremendous” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A)seasonal

  B)endless

  C)unexpected

  D)enormous

  9.Paragraph 3 supports the idea that one problem with the broken-forest hypothesis is that

  A)ecologists have found gliding animals in areas of Southeast Asia where trees are connected by vines and not found them in Amazonian forests where trees are not connected by vines.

  B)in Southeast Asia, the forests with the fewest woody vines connecting the tops of trees turn out to have the most gliding animals.

  C)according to ecologists in different regions of the world, gliding animals are as abundant and varied in some forests of Africa and the New World as they are in Southeast Asian forests.

  D)gliding is no easier in broken forests with an uneven canopy structure than it is in forests where the trees are all about the same height.

  10.According to paragraph 4, what special difficulty do leaf-eating animals face in a dipterocarp forest

  A)Dipterocarp trees are less leafy than other canopy trees.

  B)There is no efficient method of getting from one tree to another.

  C)Most trees are very tall with leaves that are difficult to reach.

  D)There is a large distance between trees that have edible leaves.

  11.How does paragraph 5 relate to paragraph 4

  A)Paragraph 5 shows that the food-desert theory introduced in paragraph 4 can account for only part of what needs to be explained.

  B)Paragraph 5 explains why the author calls the theory set out in paragraph 4 the food-desert theory.

  C)Paragraph 5 completes the account of the food-desert theory begun in paragraph 4.

  D)Paragraph 5 outlines an alternative to the food-desert theory described in paragraph 4.

  12.According to paragraph 5, what is responsible for the relative scarcity of insects and other prey in dipterocarp forests

  A)The inability of insects and other prey to eat the toxic seeds, flowers, and fruits of dipterocarp trees

  B)The efficiency with which lizards and geckos hunt their prey

  C)The abundance of carnivorous animals in dipterocarp forests

  D)Dipterocarps’ irregular flowering and fruiting cycles

  13.Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  For each group, a dipterocarp forest is like a desert in that food resources are few and far apart.

  Where would the sentence best fit

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  A)One theory is that so many gliding species evolved in Southeast Asia because the forests are exceptionally tall, but there is evidence that calls that theory into question.

  B)The fact that gliding animals are most abundant in the short-stature forests of China, Vietnam, and Thailand shows that gliding did not evolve as an adaptation to an environment of tall trees.

  C)Ecologists have shown that the abundance of gliding animals in different regions of the world corresponds to variations in tree height, canopy structure, and abundance of vines.

  D)The hypothesis that gliding evolved to compensate for a scarcity of vines linking tree canopies overlooks problematic evidence from both Southeast Asian and Amazonian forests.

  E)In forests that are dominated by tall trees, jumping from tree to tree or descending to the ground may be a more efficient way of traveling through the forest than gliding.

  F)Dipterocarp trees create an environment in which many species must travel widely to find food, and gliding may have evolved as a rapid and efficient way of moving between tree crowns.

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